Assignment Prompt & Instructions
– ## Chapter_005.rtf
– ## Chapter_006.rtf
– 20250915_014532.jpg
**## Chapter_005.rtf**
5-3
Audio Chapter Summaries
Copyright © 2025 by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
Copyright © 2025 by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
**Patton: Structure & Function of the Body, 17th Edition**
**Chapter 05: Organ Systems**
****Audio Chapter Summaries****
****Welcome to the audio review of Chapter 5: Organs and Systems.****
**An organ is a structure made up of two or more kinds of tissues organized in such a way that they can**
**_together_ perform a more complex function than can any tissue alone.**
**An organ**
**_system_ is a group of organs arranged in such a way that they can together, perform a more complex function than can any organ alone.**
**Knowledge of individual organs and how they are organized into groups makes the understanding of how a particular organ system functions as a whole more meaningful.**
**Now we’ll review the basic structures and functions of the body’s organ systems.**
**The integumentary system has only one organ, the skin, but it has many appendages (or attached structures).**
**Skin appendages include the hair, nails, microscopic sense receptors, sweat glands, and oil glands.**
**The primary function of the integumentary system is protection. Additional functions include regulation of body temperature, synthesis of chemicals, and its use as a sense organ.**
**The skeletal system is comprised of bones, cartilage, ligaments, and joints.**
**Bones are the organs of the skeletal system. There are 206 named bones in the skeleton, but additional variable bones occur in each individual.**
**Cartilage connects and cushions joined bones.**
**Ligaments are bands of fibrous tissue that hold bones together.**
**Joints are the connections between bones that make movement possible.**
**The skeletal system functions as the supporting framework for the entire body. It protects the brain and internal organs, and provides movement with joints and muscles. It also stores minerals and forms blood cells.**
**The next system to review is the muscular system.**
**Muscles are the primary organs of the muscular system and are divided into three types: voluntary or striated skeletal muscle; involuntary or smooth muscle tissue in the walls of some organs; and cardiac muscle in the wall of the heart.**
**The muscular system functions in movement, maintenance of body posture, and production of heat.**
**If you hear the term “skeletomuscular system,” this simply means a combination of the skeletal and muscular systems.**
**The nervous system can be considered a communications system of the body.**
**It also integrates body functions, controls body functions, and is involved in the recognition of sensory stimuli.**
**The nervous system is divided structurally into the central nervous system (or CNS), which includes the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (or PNS), which includes the cranial nerves and their branches, the spinal nerves and their branches, and the sense organs.**
**The endocrine system consists of ductless glands that secrete signaling hormones directly into the blood.**
**Its functions are the same as the nervous system—communication, integration, and control. However, in the endocrine system, control is slow and of long duration.**
**The term neuroendocrine system is a combination of nervous and endocrine systems.**
**Examples of functions regulated by hormones: include growth, metabolism, reproduction, and fluid and electrolyte balance.**
**The cardiovascular system is also called the**
**_circulatory system_.**
**It includes the heart and blood vessels.**
**Functions of the cardiovascular system are transportation of substances throughout the body, regulation of body temperature, and immunity (or body defense).**
**The next systems to review are the lymphatic and immune systems.**
**Structures of the lymphatic system include the lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes and tonsils, thymus, spleen, and red bone marrow.**
**The lymphatic system functions in transportation of lymph, and in immunity.**
**Structures of the immune system include unique cells and defensive protein compounds.**
**Phagocytes and secretory cells are the unique cells.**
**Antibodies and complements are the defensive protein compounds.**
**Functions of the immune system include phagocytosis of bacteria, as well as chemical reactions that provide protection from harmful agents.**
**You may be familiar with some of the functions of the next system, the respiratory system.**
**It is involved in the exchange of waste gas (carbon dioxide) for oxygen in the alveoli of the lungs; infiltration of irritants from inspired air, and in regulation of acid-base balance.**
**Structures of the respiratory system include the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs.**
**Functions of the next system, the digestive system, are also likely familiar to you.**
**They include mechanical and chemical breakdown of food (called digestion), absorption of nutrients, and elimination of undigested waste product—referred to as**
**_feces._**
**In addition, the appendix holds bacteria that assist digestion.**
**Structures of the digestive system are considered either primary organs or accessory organs.**
**Primary organs form the alimentary canal, called the gastrointestinal (or GI) tract. They are the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, rectum, and anal canal.**
**Accessory organs assist the digestive process. Accessory organs include the teeth, salivary glands, tongue, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, and appendix.**
**The next system to review, the urinary system, includes these structures: the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra.**
**In males, the urethra is part of both the urinary and the reproductive systems.**
**Functions of the urinary system are “clearing,” or cleaning the blood of waste products, which are excreted from the body as**
**_urine;_ electrolyte balance; water balance; and acid-base balance.**
**The reproductive systems ensure survival of genes and produce sex cells: sperm in the male: ova in the female.**
**These systems also transfer and fertilize sex cells; develop, birth, and nourish offspring, and produce sex hormones.**
**Structures of the reproductive system of the male include the testes, which are the gonads of the male, as well as other structures including the vas deferens, urethra, prostate, and external genitalia, the penis and scrotum.**
**Structures of the reproductive system of the female include the ovaries, which are the gonads of the female, as well as other structures: the uterus, uterine (or fallopian) tubes, vagina, external genitalia (also called the vulva), and the mammary glands, the medical term for breasts.**
**As you review the individual body systems, keep in mind the concept of the body as a whole. No one body system functions entirely independently of other systems. All body systems are structurally and functionally interrelated and interdependent.**
**This concludes the audio review of Chapter 5.**
**## Chapter_006.rtf**
6-5
Audio Chapter Summaries
Copyright © 2025 by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
Copyright © 2025 by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
**Patton: Structure & Function of the Body, 17th Edition**
**Chapter 06: Skin & Membranes**
****Audio Chapter Summaries****
****Welcome to the audio review of Chapter 6: Skin** **&** **Membranes.****
**First, we’ll review body membranes. The classification of body membranes divides them into two types: connective tissue membranes and epithelial membranes.**
**Connective tissue membranes are composed largely of various types of connective tissue.**
**They do not contain epithelial components.**
**Connective tissue membranes produce a lubricant called**
**_synovial fluid._**
**__Examples of connective tissue membranes are the synovial membranes lining the joint capsules that surround and attach the ends of articulating bones in movable joints and in the lining of bursal sacs.__**
**_Epithelial membranes are composed of epithelial tissue and an underlying layer of connective tissue._**
**_There are three types of epithelial membranes: cutaneous, serous, and mucous membranes._**
**_The skin is the cutaneous membrane, the first type of epithelial membrane._**
**_Serous membranes, the second type of epithelial membranes, are simple squamous epithelium on a connective tissue basement membrane._**
**_Serous membranes have layers: The parietal layer lines the wall of a body cavity; the visceral layer covers organs within a body cavity._**
**_Examples of serous membranes include the pericardium, which has parietal and visceral layers that line a fibrous sac around the heart and a visceral layer that covers the heart wall._**
**_The pleura is another example of a serous membrane: parietal and visceral layers of the pleura line the walls of the thoracic cavity and cover the lungs._**
**_The peritoneum is a third example of a serous membrane. Its parietal and visceral layers line the walls of the abdominal cavity and cover the organs in that cavity._**
**_Diseases, such as pleurisy and peritonitis, can affect serous membranes._**
**_Pleurisy is inflammation of the serous membranes that line the chest cavity and cover the lungs._**
**_Peritonitis is inflammation of the serous membranes in the abdominal cavity that line the walls and cover the abdominal organs._**
**_The third type of epithelial membranes, mucous membranes, line body surfaces that open directly to the exterior. Mucous membranes produce mucus, a thick secretion that keeps the membranes soft and moist._**
**_Next, we’ll review the skin._**
**_There are five main functions of the skin: protection, temperature regulation, sense organ activity, excretion, and synthesis of vitamin D._**
**_Protection by the skin is the body’s first line of defense against infection by microbes, UV rays from sun, harmful chemicals, and cuts and tears._**
**_The mechanisms of temperature regulation by the skin include regulation of sweat secretion and regulation of flow of blood close to the body surface. The skin can release almost 3000 calories of body heat per day!_**
**_Skin also functions as an enormous sense organ; receptors serve as receivers for the body, keeping it informed of changes in its environment._**
**_Skin functions in excretion because sweat can rid the body of ions and wastes._**
**_The synthesis of vitamin D by the skin is another vital function._**
**_**Now that you have reviewed skin’s functions, it’s time to review its structure. Skin structure contains two primary layers called**_**
**_**_epidermis_ and**_**
**_**_dermis._**_**
**_**_The epidermis is the outermost and thinnest primary layer of skin._**_**
**_**_It is composed of several layers of stratified squamous epithelium. The stratum germinativum, the innermost (or deepest) layer of cells, continually reproduces, and new cells move toward the surface._**_**
**_**_As cells approach the surface, they are filled with a tough, waterproof protein called_**_**
**_**__keratin_ and eventually flake off. The outermost layer of keratin-filled cells is called the stratum corneum._**_**
**_**_Skin pigment is created by pigment-producing cells called melanocyte cells. They are found in the basal layer of stratum germinativum._**_**
**_**_The brown pigment melanin produced by melanocytes is distributed to other epithelial cells, giving skin a darker color. The amount and type of melanin, determined by genes, helps produce basic skin color._**_**
**_**_Skin color changes include additional pigmentation as a reaction to sunlight; a pink flush that indicates increased blood volume or_**_**
**_**_**in** creased blood oxygen, and cyanosis, a bluish color that indicates_**_**
**_**_**de** creased blood oxygen level._**_**
**_**_At the dermal-epidermal junction, there is a gluelike layer between the dermis and epidermis._**_**
**_**_Small bumps called dermal papillae help stabilize the junction._**_**
**_**_Blisters are caused by breakdown of the union between cells or primary layers of skin._**_**
**_**_The dermis is the deeper and thicker of the two primary skin layers._**_**
**_**_It is composed largely of connective tissue. The upper papillary layer of dermis is characterized by parallel rows of tiny bumps called_**_**
**_**__dermal papillae._ Ridges and grooves in the dermis form a pattern unique to each individual, which are the basis of fingerprinting. They also improve grip for tool use and walking._**_**
**_**_The deeper reticular layer of the dermis is filled with a network of tough, interlacing, collagenous, and stretchable elastic fibers. The number of elastic fibers decreases with age and contributes to wrinkle formation. The dermis also contains nerve endings, muscle fibers, hair follicles, sweat and sebaceous glands, and many blood vessels._**_**
**_**_The subcutaneous tissue is also called the_**_**
**_**__superficial fascia_ or hypodermis. It is located deep to the dermis but is not part of the skin. Loose fibrous and adipose tissues are prominent in the subcutaneous tissue._**_**
**_**_Several structures are associated with skin. They include hair, nails, and skin receptors._**_**
**_**_Next, we’ll review information about hair, an accessory skin structure._**_**
**_**_The soft hair of the fetus and newborn is called_**_**
**_**__lanugo._ Hair growth requires epidermal tubelike structures called_**_**
**_**__hair follicles.__**_**
**_**_Hair growth begins from hair papilla._**_**
**_**_The hair roots lie hidden in follicles; the external visible part of hair is called the_**_**
**_**__shaft.__**_**
**_**_Smooth muscle of the skin that produces “goose bumps” are called arrector pili. They cause hair to stand up straight._**_**
**_**_Nails, another accessory skin structure, are produced by epidermal cells over the terminal ends of fingers and toes._**_**
**_**_The visible part of each nail is called the_**_**
**_**__nail body.__**_**
**_**_The nail root lies in a groove and is hidden by the cuticle._**_**
**_**_The crescent-shaped area nearest the root is called the_**_**
**_**__lunula, so named for its moon-like curve.__**_**
**_**_The nail bed may change color with changes in blood flow._**_**
**_**_Skin receptors include sensory nerve endings for touch and pressure._**_**
**_**_Sensory nerve endings make it possible for skin to act as a sense organ._**_**
**_**_Tactile (or Meissner) corpuscles, one type of sensory nerve ending, are capable of detecting light touch._**_**
**_**_Another type, lamellar (or pacinian) corpuscles, are capable of detecting pressure._**_**
**_**_Skin glands include two types of sweat or sudoriferous glands, as well as sebaceous or oil glands._**_**
**_**_The first type of sweat, or sudoriferous, glands we will review is the eccrine sweat gland. The eccrine sweat glands are the most numerous, important, and widespread of the sweat glands. They produce perspiration or sweat, which flows out through pores on the skin surface. They function throughout life and assist in body heat regulation._**_**
**_**_The second type of sweat or sudoriferous glands are the apocrine glands. They are found primarily in the axilla and around genitalia. The apocrine glands secrete a thicker secretion that is different from eccrine perspiration. The breakdown of this secretion by skin bacteria produces odor._**_**
**_**_Sebaceous glands are not sweat glands. Sebaceous glands secrete oil or sebum for hair and skin. The level of secretion increases during adolescence, and the amount of secretion is regulated by sex hormones. The sebum in sebaceous gland ducts may darken to form a blackhead._**_**
**_**_**It is important to understand the causes and types of skin cancer.**_**_**
**_**_**Causes of skin cancer include genetic predisposition; the sun’s ultraviolet radiation damaging skin cell DNA, causing mistakes during mitosis; and viral infection.**_**_**
**_**_**There are several types of skin cancer: squamous cell carcinoma, basal cell carcinoma, melanoma, and Kaposi sarcoma.**_**_**
**_**_**Squamous cell carcinoma, a common type of skin cancer is slow growing, and lesions begin as painless, hard, raised nodules. However, it will metastasize.**_**_**
**_**_**Basal cell carcinoma is the most common type of skin cancer.**_**_**
**_**_**It originates in cells at the**_**_**
**_**_**_base_ of the epidermis—often on the upper face.**_**_**
**_**_**Lesions begin as small, raised areas that erode in the center, bleed, and crust over.**_**_**
**_**_**Basal cell carcinoma is less likely to metastasize than other skin cancer types.**_**_**
**_**_**Melanoma is the most serious form of skin cancer.**_**_**
**_**_**It may develop from benign, pigmented moles or excess ultraviolet radiation.**_**_**
**_**_**The incidence of melanoma in the United States is increasing.**_**_**
**_**_**The fourth type of skin cancer, Kaposi sarcoma, is caused by Kaposi sarcoma–associated herpes virus, abbreviated KSHV.**_**_**
**_**_**Kaposi sarcoma manifests as purple papules on the skin surface, which quickly metastasize internally.**_**_**
**_**_**In evaluating a skin lesion, use the ABCDE rule of self-examination: check for A,**_**_**
**_**_****a** symmetry, B,**_**_**
**_**_****b** order, C,**_**_**
**_**_****c** olor, D,**_**_**
**_**_****d** iameter and E, whether it is**_**_**
**_**_****e** volving or changing over time.**_**_**
**_**_**Next, we’ll review burns.**_**_**
**_**_**Treatment of burns and recovery or survival from them depends on the total area involved and the severity or depth of the burn.**_**_**
**_**_**Body surface area involved in a burn is estimated using the “rule of nines” in adults.**_**_**
**_**_**The rule of nines divides the body into 11 areas of 9% each, to equal 99% of the body.**_**_**
**_**_**An additional 1% of body surface area is around the genitals.**_**_**
**_**_**Burns are classified based on the depth or thickness of tissue involvement.**_**_**
**_**_**In first-degree or “partial-thickness” burns, only the surface layers of epidermis involved.**_**_**
**_**_**Second-degree burns, which are a deeper type of partial-thickness burn, involve the deep epidermal layers and always cause injury to the upper layers of the dermis.**_**_**
**_**_**Third-degree or “full-thickness” burns are characterized by complete destruction of the epidermis and dermis.**_**_**
**_**_**In third-degree burns, the lesion is**_**_**
**_**_****_in_** sensitive to pain because of the destruction of nerve endings immediately after injury; intense pain is soon experienced after the initial injury.**_**_**
**_**_**Note that the risk of infection is increased in third-degree burns.**_**_**
**_**_**Fourth-degree burns are full-thickness burns that extend to muscle or bone.**_**_**
**_**_**This concludes the audio review of chapter 6.**_**_**
**20250915_014532.jpg**
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**20250915_014532.jpg**
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**## Chapter_005.rtf**
5-3
Audio Chapter Summaries
Copyright © 2025 by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
Copyright © 2025 by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
**Patton: Structure & Function of the Body, 17th Edition**
**Chapter 05: Organ Systems**
****Audio Chapter Summaries****
****Welcome to the audio review of Chapter 5: Organs and Systems.****
**An organ is a structure made up of two or more kinds of tissues organized in such a way that they can**
**_together_ perform a more complex function than can any tissue alone.**
**An organ**
**_system_ is a group of organs arranged in such a way that they can together, perform a more complex function than can any organ alone.**
**Knowledge of individual organs and how they are organized into groups makes the understanding of how a particular organ system functions as a whole more meaningful.**
**Now we’ll review the basic structures and functions of the body’s organ systems.**
**The integumentary system has only one organ, the skin, but it has many appendages (or attached structures).**
**Skin appendages include the hair, nails, microscopic sense receptors, sweat glands, and oil glands.**
**The primary function of the integumentary system is protection. Additional functions include regulation of body temperature, synthesis of chemicals, and its use as a sense organ.**
**The skeletal system is comprised of bones, cartilage, ligaments, and joints.**
**Bones are the organs of the skeletal system. There are 206 named bones in the skeleton, but additional variable bones occur in each individual.**
**Cartilage connects and cushions joined bones.**
**Ligaments are bands of fibrous tissue that hold bones together.**
**Joints are the connections between bones that make movement possible.**
**The skeletal system functions as the supporting framework for the entire body. It protects the brain and internal organs, and provides movement with joints and muscles. It also stores minerals and forms blood cells.**
**The next system to review is the muscular system.**
**Muscles are the primary organs of the muscular system and are divided into three types: voluntary or striated skeletal muscle; involuntary or smooth muscle tissue in the walls of some organs; and cardiac muscle in the wall of the heart.**
**The muscular system functions in movement, maintenance of body posture, and production of heat.**
**If you hear the term “skeletomuscular system,” this simply means a combination of the skeletal and muscular systems.**
**The nervous system can be considered a communications system of the body.**
**It also integrates body functions, controls body functions, and is involved in the recognition of sensory stimuli.**
**The nervous system is divided structurally into the central nervous system (or CNS), which includes the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (or PNS), which includes the cranial nerves and their branches, the spinal nerves and their branches, and the sense organs.**
**The endocrine system consists of ductless glands that secrete signaling hormones directly into the blood.**
**Its functions are the same as the nervous system—communication, integration, and control. However, in the endocrine system, control is slow and of long duration.**
**The term neuroendocrine system is a combination of nervous and endocrine systems.**
**Examples of functions regulated by hormones: include growth, metabolism, reproduction, and fluid and electrolyte balance.**
**The cardiovascular system is also called the**
**_circulatory system_.**
**It includes the heart and blood vessels.**
**Functions of the cardiovascular system are transportation of substances throughout the body, regulation of body temperature, and immunity (or body defense).**
**The next systems to review are the lymphatic and immune systems.**
**Structures of the lymphatic system include the lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes and tonsils, thymus, spleen, and red bone marrow.**
**The lymphatic system functions in transportation of lymph, and in immunity.**
**Structures of the immune system include unique cells and defensive protein compounds.**
**Phagocytes and secretory cells are the unique cells.**
**Antibodies and complements are the defensive protein compounds.**
**Functions of the immune system include phagocytosis of bacteria, as well as chemical reactions that provide protection from harmful agents.**
**You may be familiar with some of the functions of the next system, the respiratory system.**
**It is involved in the exchange of waste gas (carbon dioxide) for oxygen in the alveoli of the lungs; infiltration of irritants from inspired air, and in regulation of acid-base balance.**
**Structures of the respiratory system include the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs.**
**Functions of the next system, the digestive system, are also likely familiar to you.**
**They include mechanical and chemical breakdown of food (called digestion), absorption of nutrients, and elimination of undigested waste product—referred to as**
**_feces._**
**In addition, the appendix holds bacteria that assist digestion.**
**Structures of the digestive system are considered either primary organs or accessory organs.**
**Primary organs form the alimentary canal, called the gastrointestinal (or GI) tract. They are the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, rectum, and anal canal.**
**Accessory organs assist the digestive process. Accessory organs include the teeth, salivary glands, tongue, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, and appendix.**
**The next system to review, the urinary system, includes these structures: the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra.**
**In males, the urethra is part of both the urinary and the reproductive systems.**
**Functions of the urinary system are “clearing,” or cleaning the blood of waste products, which are excreted from the body as**
**_urine;_ electrolyte balance; water balance; and acid-base balance.**
**The reproductive systems ensure survival of genes and produce sex cells: sperm in the male: ova in the female.**
**These systems also transfer and fertilize sex cells; develop, birth, and nourish offspring, and produce sex hormones.**
**Structures of the reproductive system of the male include the testes, which are the gonads of the male, as well as other structures including the vas deferens, urethra, prostate, and external genitalia, the penis and scrotum.**
**Structures of the reproductive system of the female include the ovaries, which are the gonads of the female, as well as other structures: the uterus, uterine (or fallopian) tubes, vagina, external genitalia (also called the vulva), and the mammary glands, the medical term for breasts.**
**As you review the individual body systems, keep in mind the concept of the body as a whole. No one body system functions entirely independently of other systems. All body systems are structurally and functionally interrelated and interdependent.**
**This concludes the audio review of Chapter 5.**
**## Chapter_006.rtf**
6-5
Audio Chapter Summaries
Copyright © 2025 by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
Copyright © 2025 by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
**Patton: Structure & Function of the Body, 17th Edition**
**Chapter 06: Skin & Membranes**
****Audio Chapter Summaries****
****Welcome to the audio review of Chapter 6: Skin** **&** **Membranes.****
**First, we’ll review body membranes. The classification of body membranes divides them into two types: connective tissue membranes and epithelial membranes.**
**Connective tissue membranes are composed largely of various types of connective tissue.**
**They do not contain epithelial components.**
**Connective tissue membranes produce a lubricant called**
**_synovial fluid._**
**__Examples of connective tissue membranes are the synovial membranes lining the joint capsules that surround and attach the ends of articulating bones in movable joints and in the lining of bursal sacs.__**
**_Epithelial membranes are composed of epithelial tissue and an underlying layer of connective tissue._**
**_There are three types of epithelial membranes: cutaneous, serous, and mucous membranes._**
**_The skin is the cutaneous membrane, the first type of epithelial membrane._**
**_Serous membranes, the second type of epithelial membranes, are simple squamous epithelium on a connective tissue basement membrane._**
**_Serous membranes have layers: The parietal layer lines the wall of a body cavity; the visceral layer covers organs within a body cavity._**
**_Examples of serous membranes include the pericardium, which has parietal and visceral layers that line a fibrous sac around the heart and a visceral layer that covers the heart wall._**
**_The pleura is another example of a serous membrane: parietal and visceral layers of the pleura line the walls of the thoracic cavity and cover the lungs._**
**_The peritoneum is a third example of a serous membrane. Its parietal and visceral layers line the walls of the abdominal cavity and cover the organs in that cavity._**
**_Diseases, such as pleurisy and peritonitis, can affect serous membranes._**
**_Pleurisy is inflammation of the serous membranes that line the chest cavity and cover the lungs._**
**_Peritonitis is inflammation of the serous membranes in the abdominal cavity that line the walls and cover the abdominal organs._**
**_The third type of epithelial membranes, mucous membranes, line body surfaces that open directly to the exterior. Mucous membranes produce mucus, a thick secretion that keeps the membranes soft and moist._**
**_Next, we’ll review the skin._**
**_There are five main functions of the skin: protection, temperature regulation, sense organ activity, excretion, and synthesis of vitamin D._**
**_Protection by the skin is the body’s first line of defense against infection by microbes, UV rays from sun, harmful chemicals, and cuts and tears._**
**_The mechanisms of temperature regulation by the skin include regulation of sweat secretion and regulation of flow of blood close to the body surface. The skin can release almost 3000 calories of body heat per day!_**
**_Skin also functions as an enormous sense organ; receptors serve as receivers for the body, keeping it informed of changes in its environment._**
**_Skin functions in excretion because sweat can rid the body of ions and wastes._**
**_The synthesis of vitamin D by the skin is another vital function._**
**_**Now that you have reviewed skin’s functions, it’s time to review its structure. Skin structure contains two primary layers called**_**
**_**_epidermis_ and**_**
**_**_dermis._**_**
**_**_The epidermis is the outermost and thinnest primary layer of skin._**_**
**_**_It is composed of several layers of stratified squamous epithelium. The stratum germinativum, the innermost (or deepest) layer of cells, continually reproduces, and new cells move toward the surface._**_**
**_**_As cells approach the surface, they are filled with a tough, waterproof protein called_**_**
**_**__keratin_ and eventually flake off. The outermost layer of keratin-filled cells is called the stratum corneum._**_**
**_**_Skin pigment is created by pigment-producing cells called melanocyte cells. They are found in the basal layer of stratum germinativum._**_**
**_**_The brown pigment melanin produced by melanocytes is distributed to other epithelial cells, giving skin a darker color. The amount and type of melanin, determined by genes, helps produce basic skin color._**_**
**_**_Skin color changes include additional pigmentation as a reaction to sunlight; a pink flush that indicates increased blood volume or_**_**
**_**_**in** creased blood oxygen, and cyanosis, a bluish color that indicates_**_**
**_**_**de** creased blood oxygen level._**_**
**_**_At the dermal-epidermal junction, there is a gluelike layer between the dermis and epidermis._**_**
**_**_Small bumps called dermal papillae help stabilize the junction._**_**
**_**_Blisters are caused by breakdown of the union between cells or primary layers of skin._**_**
**_**_The dermis is the deeper and thicker of the two primary skin layers._**_**
**_**_It is composed largely of connective tissue. The upper papillary layer of dermis is characterized by parallel rows of tiny bumps called_**_**
**_**__dermal papillae._ Ridges and grooves in the dermis form a pattern unique to each individual, which are the basis of fingerprinting. They also improve grip for tool use and walking._**_**
**_**_The deeper reticular layer of the dermis is filled with a network of tough, interlacing, collagenous, and stretchable elastic fibers. The number of elastic fibers decreases with age and contributes to wrinkle formation. The dermis also contains nerve endings, muscle fibers, hair follicles, sweat and sebaceous glands, and many blood vessels._**_**
**_**_The subcutaneous tissue is also called the_**_**
**_**__superficial fascia_ or hypodermis. It is located deep to the dermis but is not part of the skin. Loose fibrous and adipose tissues are prominent in the subcutaneous tissue._**_**
**_**_Several structures are associated with skin. They include hair, nails, and skin receptors._**_**
**_**_Next, we’ll review information about hair, an accessory skin structure._**_**
**_**_The soft hair of the fetus and newborn is called_**_**
**_**__lanugo._ Hair growth requires epidermal tubelike structures called_**_**
**_**__hair follicles.__**_**
**_**_Hair growth begins from hair papilla._**_**
**_**_The hair roots lie hidden in follicles; the external visible part of hair is called the_**_**
**_**__shaft.__**_**
**_**_Smooth muscle of the skin that produces “goose bumps” are called arrector pili. They cause hair to stand up straight._**_**
**_**_Nails, another accessory skin structure, are produced by epidermal cells over the terminal ends of fingers and toes._**_**
**_**_The visible part of each nail is called the_**_**
**_**__nail body.__**_**
**_**_The nail root lies in a groove and is hidden by the cuticle._**_**
**_**_The crescent-shaped area nearest the root is called the_**_**
**_**__lunula, so named for its moon-like curve.__**_**
**_**_The nail bed may change color with changes in blood flow._**_**
**_**_Skin receptors include sensory nerve endings for touch and pressure._**_**
**_**_Sensory nerve endings make it possible for skin to act as a sense organ._**_**
**_**_Tactile (or Meissner) corpuscles, one type of sensory nerve ending, are capable of detecting light touch._**_**
**_**_Another type, lamellar (or pacinian) corpuscles, are capable of detecting pressure._**_**
**_**_Skin glands include two types of sweat or sudoriferous glands, as well as sebaceous or oil glands._**_**
**_**_The first type of sweat, or sudoriferous, glands we will review is the eccrine sweat gland. The eccrine sweat glands are the most numerous, important, and widespread of the sweat glands. They produce perspiration or sweat, which flows out through pores on the skin surface. They function throughout life and assist in body heat regulation._**_**
**_**_The second type of sweat or sudoriferous glands are the apocrine glands. They are found primarily in the axilla and around genitalia. The apocrine glands secrete a thicker secretion that is different from eccrine perspiration. The breakdown of this secretion by skin bacteria produces odor._**_**
**_**_Sebaceous glands are not sweat glands. Sebaceous glands secrete oil or sebum for hair and skin. The level of secretion increases during adolescence, and the amount of secretion is regulated by sex hormones. The sebum in sebaceous gland ducts may darken to form a blackhead._**_**
**_**_**It is important to understand the causes and types of skin cancer.**_**_**
**_**_**Causes of skin cancer include genetic predisposition; the sun’s ultraviolet radiation damaging skin cell DNA, causing mistakes during mitosis; and viral infection.**_**_**
**_**_**There are several types of skin cancer: squamous cell carcinoma, basal cell carcinoma, melanoma, and Kaposi sarcoma.**_**_**
**_**_**Squamous cell carcinoma, a common type of skin cancer is slow growing, and lesions begin as painless, hard, raised nodules. However, it will metastasize.**_**_**
**_**_**Basal cell carcinoma is the most common type of skin cancer.**_**_**
**_**_**It originates in cells at the**_**_**
**_**_**_base_ of the epidermis—often on the upper face.**_**_**
**_**_**Lesions begin as small, raised areas that erode in the center, bleed, and crust over.**_**_**
**_**_**Basal cell carcinoma is less likely to metastasize than other skin cancer types.**_**_**
**_**_**Melanoma is the most serious form of skin cancer.**_**_**
**_**_**It may develop from benign, pigmented moles or excess ultraviolet radiation.**_**_**
**_**_**The incidence of melanoma in the United States is increasing.**_**_**
**_**_**The fourth type of skin cancer, Kaposi sarcoma, is caused by Kaposi sarcoma–associated herpes virus, abbreviated KSHV.**_**_**
**_**_**Kaposi sarcoma manifests as purple papules on the skin surface, which quickly metastasize internally.**_**_**
**_**_**In evaluating a skin lesion, use the ABCDE rule of self-examination: check for A,**_**_**
**_**_****a** symmetry, B,**_**_**
**_**_****b** order, C,**_**_**
**_**_****c** olor, D,**_**_**
**_**_****d** iameter and E, whether it is**_**_**
**_**_****e** volving or changing over time.**_**_**
**_**_**Next, we’ll review burns.**_**_**
**_**_**Treatment of burns and recovery or survival from them depends on the total area involved and the severity or depth of the burn.**_**_**
**_**_**Body surface area involved in a burn is estimated using the “rule of nines” in adults.**_**_**
**_**_**The rule of nines divides the body into 11 areas of 9% each, to equal 99% of the body.**_**_**
**_**_**An additional 1% of body surface area is around the genitals.**_**_**
**_**_**Burns are classified based on the depth or thickness of tissue involvement.**_**_**
**_**_**In first-degree or “partial-thickness” burns, only the surface layers of epidermis involved.**_**_**
**_**_**Second-degree burns, which are a deeper type of partial-thickness burn, involve the deep epidermal layers and always cause injury to the upper layers of the dermis.**_**_**
**_**_**Third-degree or “full-thickness” burns are characterized by complete destruction of the epidermis and dermis.**_**_**
**_**_**In third-degree burns, the lesion is**_**_**
**_**_****_in_** sensitive to pain because of the destruction of nerve endings immediately after injury; intense pain is soon experienced after the initial injury.**_**_**
**_**_**Note that the risk of infection is increased in third-degree burns.**_**_**
**_**_**Fourth-degree burns are full-thickness burns that extend to muscle or bone.**_**_**
**_**_**This concludes the audio review of chapter 6.**_**_**
**20250915_014532.jpg**
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**## Chapter_005.rtf**
5-3
Audio Chapter Summaries
Copyright © 2025 by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
Copyright © 2025 by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
**Patton: Structure & Function of the Body, 17th Edition**
**Chapter 05: Organ Systems**
****Audio Chapter Summaries****
****Welcome to the audio review of Chapter 5: Organs and Systems.****
**An organ is a structure made up of two or more kinds of tissues organized in such a way that they can**
**_together_ perform a more complex function than can any tissue alone.**
**An organ**
**_system_ is a group of organs arranged in such a way that they can together, perform a more complex function than can any organ alone.**
**Knowledge of individual organs and how they are organized into groups makes the understanding of how a particular organ system functions as a whole more meaningful.**
**Now we’ll review the basic structures and functions of the body’s organ systems.**
**The integumentary system has only one organ, the skin, but it has many appendages (or attached structures).**
**Skin appendages include the hair, nails, microscopic sense receptors, sweat glands, and oil glands.**
**The primary function of the integumentary system is protection. Additional functions include regulation of body temperature, synthesis of chemicals, and its use as a sense organ.**
**The skeletal system is comprised of bones, cartilage, ligaments, and joints.**
**Bones are the organs of the skeletal system. There are 206 named bones in the skeleton, but additional variable bones occur in each individual.**
**Cartilage connects and cushions joined bones.**
**Ligaments are bands of fibrous tissue that hold bones together.**
**Joints are the connections between bones that make movement possible.**
**The skeletal system functions as the supporting framework for the entire body. It protects the brain and internal organs, and provides movement with joints and muscles. It also stores minerals and forms blood cells.**
**The next system to review is the muscular system.**
**Muscles are the primary organs of the muscular system and are divided into three types: voluntary or striated skeletal muscle; involuntary or smooth muscle tissue in the walls of some organs; and cardiac muscle in the wall of the heart.**
**The muscular system functions in movement, maintenance of body posture, and production of heat.**
**If you hear the term “skeletomuscular system,” this simply means a combination of the skeletal and muscular systems.**
**The nervous system can be considered a communications system of the body.**
**It also integrates body functions, controls body functions, and is involved in the recognition of sensory stimuli.**
**The nervous system is divided structurally into the central nervous system (or CNS), which includes the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (or PNS), which includes the cranial nerves and their branches, the spinal nerves and their branches, and the sense organs.**
**The endocrine system consists of ductless glands that secrete signaling hormones directly into the blood.**
**Its functions are the same as the nervous system—communication, integration, and control. However, in the endocrine system, control is slow and of long duration.**
**The term neuroendocrine system is a combination of nervous and endocrine systems.**
**Examples of functions regulated by hormones: include growth, metabolism, reproduction, and fluid and electrolyte balance.**
**The cardiovascular system is also called the**
**_circulatory system_.**
**It includes the heart and blood vessels.**
**Functions of the cardiovascular system are transportation of substances throughout the body, regulation of body temperature, and immunity (or body defense).**
**The next systems to review are the lymphatic and immune systems.**
**Structures of the lymphatic system include the lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes and tonsils, thymus, spleen, and red bone marrow.**
**The lymphatic system functions in transportation of lymph, and in immunity.**
**Structures of the immune system include unique cells and defensive protein compounds.**
**Phagocytes and secretory cells are the unique cells.**
**Antibodies and complements are the defensive protein compounds.**
**Functions of the immune system include phagocytosis of bacteria, as well as chemical reactions that provide protection from harmful agents.**
**You may be familiar with some of the functions of the next system, the respiratory system.**
**It is involved in the exchange of waste gas (carbon dioxide) for oxygen in the alveoli of the lungs; infiltration of irritants from inspired air, and in regulation of acid-base balance.**
**Structures of the respiratory system include the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs.**
**Functions of the next system, the digestive system, are also likely familiar to you.**
**They include mechanical and chemical breakdown of food (called digestion), absorption of nutrients, and elimination of undigested waste product—referred to as**
**_feces._**
**In addition, the appendix holds bacteria that assist digestion.**
**Structures of the digestive system are considered either primary organs or accessory organs.**
**Primary organs form the alimentary canal, called the gastrointestinal (or GI) tract. They are the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, rectum, and anal canal.**
**Accessory organs assist the digestive process. Accessory organs include the teeth, salivary glands, tongue, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, and appendix.**
**The next system to review, the urinary system, includes these structures: the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra.**
**In males, the urethra is part of both the urinary and the reproductive systems.**
**Functions of the urinary system are “clearing,” or cleaning the blood of waste products, which are excreted from the body as**
**_urine;_ electrolyte balance; water balance; and acid-base balance.**
**The reproductive systems ensure survival of genes and produce sex cells: sperm in the male: ova in the female.**
**These systems also transfer and fertilize sex cells; develop, birth, and nourish offspring, and produce sex hormones.**
**Structures of the reproductive system of the male include the testes, which are the gonads of the male, as well as other structures including the vas deferens, urethra, prostate, and external genitalia, the penis and scrotum.**
**Structures of the reproductive system of the female include the ovaries, which are the gonads of the female, as well as other structures: the uterus, uterine (or fallopian) tubes, vagina, external genitalia (also called the vulva), and the mammary glands, the medical term for breasts.**
**As you review the individual body systems, keep in mind the concept of the body as a whole. No one body system functions entirely independently of other systems. All body systems are structurally and functionally interrelated and interdependent.**
**This concludes the audio review of Chapter 5.**
**## Chapter_006.rtf**
6-5
Audio Chapter Summaries
Copyright © 2025 by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
Copyright © 2025 by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
**Patton: Structure & Function of the Body, 17th Edition**
**Chapter 06: Skin & Membranes**
****Audio Chapter Summaries****
****Welcome to the audio review of Chapter 6: Skin** **&** **Membranes.****
**First, we’ll review body membranes. The classification of body membranes divides them into two types: connective tissue membranes and epithelial membranes.**
**Connective tissue membranes are composed largely of various types of connective tissue.**
**They do not contain epithelial components.**
**Connective tissue membranes produce a lubricant called**
**_synovial fluid._**
**__Examples of connective tissue membranes are the synovial membranes lining the joint capsules that surround and attach the ends of articulating bones in movable joints and in the lining of bursal sacs.__**
**_Epithelial membranes are composed of epithelial tissue and an underlying layer of connective tissue._**
**_There are three types of epithelial membranes: cutaneous, serous, and mucous membranes._**
**_The skin is the cutaneous membrane, the first type of epithelial membrane._**
**_Serous membranes, the second type of epithelial membranes, are simple squamous epithelium on a connective tissue basement membrane._**
**_Serous membranes have layers: The parietal layer lines the wall of a body cavity; the visceral layer covers organs within a body cavity._**
**_Examples of serous membranes include the pericardium, which has parietal and visceral layers that line a fibrous sac around the heart and a visceral layer that covers the heart wall._**
**_The pleura is another example of a serous membrane: parietal and visceral layers of the pleura line the walls of the thoracic cavity and cover the lungs._**
**_The peritoneum is a third example of a serous membrane. Its parietal and visceral layers line the walls of the abdominal cavity and cover the organs in that cavity._**
**_Diseases, such as pleurisy and peritonitis, can affect serous membranes._**
**_Pleurisy is inflammation of the serous membranes that line the chest cavity and cover the lungs._**
**_Peritonitis is inflammation of the serous membranes in the abdominal cavity that line the walls and cover the abdominal organs._**
**_The third type of epithelial membranes, mucous membranes, line body surfaces that open directly to the exterior. Mucous membranes produce mucus, a thick secretion that keeps the membranes soft and moist._**
**_Next, we’ll review the skin._**
**_There are five main functions of the skin: protection, temperature regulation, sense organ activity, excretion, and synthesis of vitamin D._**
**_Protection by the skin is the body’s first line of defense against infection by microbes, UV rays from sun, harmful chemicals, and cuts and tears._**
**_The mechanisms of temperature regulation by the skin include regulation of sweat secretion and regulation of flow of blood close to the body surface. The skin can release almost 3000 calories of body heat per day!_**
**_Skin also functions as an enormous sense organ; receptors serve as receivers for the body, keeping it informed of changes in its environment._**
**_Skin functions in excretion because sweat can rid the body of ions and wastes._**
**_The synthesis of vitamin D by the skin is another vital function._**
**_**Now that you have reviewed skin’s functions, it’s time to review its structure. Skin structure contains two primary layers called**_**
**_**_epidermis_ and**_**
**_**_dermis._**_**
**_**_The epidermis is the outermost and thinnest primary layer of skin._**_**
**_**_It is composed of several layers of stratified squamous epithelium. The stratum germinativum, the innermost (or deepest) layer of cells, continually reproduces, and new cells move toward the surface._**_**
**_**_As cells approach the surface, they are filled with a tough, waterproof protein called_**_**
**_**__keratin_ and eventually flake off. The outermost layer of keratin-filled cells is called the stratum corneum._**_**
**_**_Skin pigment is created by pigment-producing cells called melanocyte cells. They are found in the basal layer of stratum germinativum._**_**
**_**_The brown pigment melanin produced by melanocytes is distributed to other epithelial cells, giving skin a darker color. The amount and type of melanin, determined by genes, helps produce basic skin color._**_**
**_**_Skin color changes include additional pigmentation as a reaction to sunlight; a pink flush that indicates increased blood volume or_**_**
**_**_**in** creased blood oxygen, and cyanosis, a bluish color that indicates_**_**
**_**_**de** creased blood oxygen level._**_**
**_**_At the dermal-epidermal junction, there is a gluelike layer between the dermis and epidermis._**_**
**_**_Small bumps called dermal papillae help stabilize the junction._**_**
**_**_Blisters are caused by breakdown of the union between cells or primary layers of skin._**_**
**_**_The dermis is the deeper and thicker of the two primary skin layers._**_**
**_**_It is composed largely of connective tissue. The upper papillary layer of dermis is characterized by parallel rows of tiny bumps called_**_**
**_**__dermal papillae._ Ridges and grooves in the dermis form a pattern unique to each individual, which are the basis of fingerprinting. They also improve grip for tool use and walking._**_**
**_**_The deeper reticular layer of the dermis is filled with a network of tough, interlacing, collagenous, and stretchable elastic fibers. The number of elastic fibers decreases with age and contributes to wrinkle formation. The dermis also contains nerve endings, muscle fibers, hair follicles, sweat and sebaceous glands, and many blood vessels._**_**
**_**_The subcutaneous tissue is also called the_**_**
**_**__superficial fascia_ or hypodermis. It is located deep to the dermis but is not part of the skin. Loose fibrous and adipose tissues are prominent in the subcutaneous tissue._**_**
**_**_Several structures are associated with skin. They include hair, nails, and skin receptors._**_**
**_**_Next, we’ll review information about hair, an accessory skin structure._**_**
**_**_The soft hair of the fetus and newborn is called_**_**
**_**__lanugo._ Hair growth requires epidermal tubelike structures called_**_**
**_**__hair follicles.__**_**
**_**_Hair growth begins from hair papilla._**_**
**_**_The hair roots lie hidden in follicles; the external visible part of hair is called the_**_**
**_**__shaft.__**_**
**_**_Smooth muscle of the skin that produces “goose bumps” are called arrector pili. They cause hair to stand up straight._**_**
**_**_Nails, another accessory skin structure, are produced by epidermal cells over the terminal ends of fingers and toes._**_**
**_**_The visible part of each nail is called the_**_**
**_**__nail body.__**_**
**_**_The nail root lies in a groove and is hidden by the cuticle._**_**
**_**_The crescent-shaped area nearest the root is called the_**_**
**_**__lunula, so named for its moon-like curve.__**_**
**_**_The nail bed may change color with changes in blood flow._**_**
**_**_Skin receptors include sensory nerve endings for touch and pressure._**_**
**_**_Sensory nerve endings make it possible for skin to act as a sense organ._**_**
**_**_Tactile (or Meissner) corpuscles, one type of sensory nerve ending, are capable of detecting light touch._**_**
**_**_Another type, lamellar (or pacinian) corpuscles, are capable of detecting pressure._**_**
**_**_Skin glands include two types of sweat or sudoriferous glands, as well as sebaceous or oil glands._**_**
**_**_The first type of sweat, or sudoriferous, glands we will review is the eccrine sweat gland. The eccrine sweat glands are the most numerous, important, and widespread of the sweat glands. They produce perspiration or sweat, which flows out through pores on the skin surface. They function throughout life and assist in body heat regulation._**_**
**_**_The second type of sweat or sudoriferous glands are the apocrine glands. They are found primarily in the axilla and around genitalia. The apocrine glands secrete a thicker secretion that is different from eccrine perspiration. The breakdown of this secretion by skin bacteria produces odor._**_**
**_**_Sebaceous glands are not sweat glands. Sebaceous glands secrete oil or sebum for hair and skin. The level of secretion increases during adolescence, and the amount of secretion is regulated by sex hormones. The sebum in sebaceous gland ducts may darken to form a blackhead._**_**
**_**_**It is important to understand the causes and types of skin cancer.**_**_**
**_**_**Causes of skin cancer include genetic predisposition; the sun’s ultraviolet radiation damaging skin cell DNA, causing mistakes during mitosis; and viral infection.**_**_**
**_**_**There are several types of skin cancer: squamous cell carcinoma, basal cell carcinoma, melanoma, and Kaposi sarcoma.**_**_**
**_**_**Squamous cell carcinoma, a common type of skin cancer is slow growing, and lesions begin as painless, hard, raised nodules. However, it will metastasize.**_**_**
**_**_**Basal cell carcinoma is the most common type of skin cancer.**_**_**
**_**_**It originates in cells at the**_**_**
**_**_**_base_ of the epidermis—often on the upper face.**_**_**
**_**_**Lesions begin as small, raised areas that erode in the center, bleed, and crust over.**_**_**
**_**_**Basal cell carcinoma is less likely to metastasize than other skin cancer types.**_**_**
**_**_**Melanoma is the most serious form of skin cancer.**_**_**
**_**_**It may develop from benign, pigmented moles or excess ultraviolet radiation.**_**_**
**_**_**The incidence of melanoma in the United States is increasing.**_**_**
**_**_**The fourth type of skin cancer, Kaposi sarcoma, is caused by Kaposi sarcoma–associated herpes virus, abbreviated KSHV.**_**_**
**_**_**Kaposi sarcoma manifests as purple papules on the skin surface, which quickly metastasize internally.**_**_**
**_**_**In evaluating a skin lesion, use the ABCDE rule of self-examination: check for A,**_**_**
**_**_****a** symmetry, B,**_**_**
**_**_****b** order, C,**_**_**
**_**_****c** olor, D,**_**_**
**_**_****d** iameter and E, whether it is**_**_**
**_**_****e** volving or changing over time.**_**_**
**_**_**Next, we’ll review burns.**_**_**
**_**_**Treatment of burns and recovery or survival from them depends on the total area involved and the severity or depth of the burn.**_**_**
**_**_**Body surface area involved in a burn is estimated using the “rule of nines” in adults.**_**_**
**_**_**The rule of nines divides the body into 11 areas of 9% each, to equal 99% of the body.**_**_**
**_**_**An additional 1% of body surface area is around the genitals.**_**_**
**_**_**Burns are classified based on the depth or thickness of tissue involvement.**_**_**
**_**_**In first-degree or “partial-thickness” burns, only the surface layers of epidermis involved.**_**_**
**_**_**Second-degree burns, which are a deeper type of partial-thickness burn, involve the deep epidermal layers and always cause injury to the upper layers of the dermis.**_**_**
**_**_**Third-degree or “full-thickness” burns are characterized by complete destruction of the epidermis and dermis.**_**_**
**_**_**In third-degree burns, the lesion is**_**_**
**_**_****_in_** sensitive to pain because of the destruction of nerve endings immediately after injury; intense pain is soon experienced after the initial injury.**_**_**
**_**_**Note that the risk of infection is increased in third-degree burns.**_**_**
**_**_**Fourth-degree burns are full-thickness burns that extend to muscle or bone.**_**_**
**_**_**This concludes the audio review of chapter 6.**_**_**
**20250915_014532.jpg**
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