Assignment Prompt & Instructions
– ## Chapter_004.rtf
– ## Chapter_003.rtf
– 20250907_000435.jpg
– 20250907_000325.jpg
– 20250907_000325.jpg
**## Chapter_004.rtf**
4-3
Audio Chapter Summaries
Copyright © 2025 by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
Copyright © 2025 by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
**Patton: Structure & Function of the Body, 17th Edition**
**Chapter 04: Tissues**
****Audio Chapter Summaries****
****Welcome to the audio review of Chapter 4: Tissues.****
**There are four main tissue types:**
**Epithelial tissue forms sheets that cover or line the body;**
**Connective tissue provides structural and functional support;**
**Muscle tissue contracts to produce movement; and**
**Nervous tissue, which senses, conducts, and processes information.**
**The extracellular matrix (or ECM), also called simply “matrix” is the internal fluid environment of the body, surrounding cells of each tissue. The ECM is mostly water, but also often contains fibers and other substances that give it thick, jellylike consistency. Two fibers within the matrix are collagen, the protein that forms twisted ropelike fibers that provide flexible strength to tissue; and elastin, a rubbery protein that provides elastic stretch and rebound in tissues. In addition, matrix includes polysaccharides and proteoglycans that help link cells, absorb shock, regulate function, and provide lubrication.**
**Next, we’ll review each of the four main types of tissue in more detail.**
**Epithelial tissue covers the body and lines body cavities.**
**The cells of epithelial tissue are packed closely together with little matrix.**
**Epithelial tissue is classified by the shape of the cells that form it.**
**Squamous epithelial tissue has flat and scalelike cells.**
**Cuboidal epithelial tissue has cube-shaped cells.**
**Columnar epithelial tissue has cells that are higher than they are wide.**
**Transitional epithelial tissue has cells of varying shapes that can stretch.**
**Epithelial tissue is also classified by the arrangement of cells into one or more layers: simple (one layer) or stratified (more than one layer).**
**Squamous epithelium is either simple or stratified.**
**Simple squamous epithelium has a single layer of scalelike cells adapted for transport (e.g., for absorption).**
**Stratified squamous epithelium has several layers of closely packed cells specializing in protection.**
**Cuboidal epithelium is also either simple or stratified.**
**Simple cuboidal epithelium contains a single layer of cubelike cells often specialized for secretory activity; they may secrete into ducts, directly into blood, and on the body surface.**
**Stratified cuboidal epithelium has two or more layers of cubelike cells, and is sometimes found in sweat glands and other locations.**
**Columnar epithelium is either simple or pseudostratified.**
**Simple columnar epithelium has tall, columnlike cells arranged in a single layer; it contains mucus-producing goblet cells; the regular columnar cells specialize in absorption.**
**Pseudostratified epithelium has a single layer of distorted columnar cells; note that each cell touches the basement membrane.**
**Transitional epithelium is also called stratified transitional epithelium. It contains up to 10 layers of roughly cuboidal cells that distort to squamous shape when stretched. Transitional epithelium is found in body areas that stretch, such as the urinary bladder.**
**Connective tissue is the most abundant and widely distributed tissue in the body, with many different types, appearances, and functions. It has relatively few cells in extracellular matrix between tissue cells. The five types of connective tissue are fibrous, bone, cartilage, blood, and hematopoietic tissue, and we’ll review each type next.**
**Fibrous connective tissue has four subtypes: loose fibrous (or areolar), adipose (or fat), reticular, and dense fibrous.**
**Loose fibrous or areolar connective tissue has fibrous glue (fascia) that holds organs together; collagenous and elastic fibers, plus a variety of cell types.**
**Adipose (or fat) tissue can be white fat, which stores lipids (such as triglycerides); or brown fat that produces heat; both types regulate metabolism.**
**Reticular tissue has a delicate net of collagen fibers, as in bone marrow.**
**Dense fibrous tissue has bundles of strong collagen fibers that are densely packed.**
**Regular dense fibrous tissue has parallel collagen bundles; an example is a tendon.**
**Irregular dense fibrous tissue has chaotic, swirling collagen bundles; an example of it is the deep layer of skin.**
**The next type of tissue we’ll review is bone tissue, which can be compact or cancellous.**
**The bone matrix is collagen bundles encrusted with calcium mineral crystals.**
**Compact bone is made of cylindrical osteons (haversian systems); it forms the outer walls of bones.**
**Cancellous bone (also called spongy bone) is made of thin, crisscrossing beams of bone; it is found inside bones.**
**Bone functions in support and protection.**
**Cartilage tissue is different than bone tissue. Cartilage tissue’s matrix is the consistency of gristlelike gel. Cartilage tissue cells are called chondrocytes.**
**There are three types of cartilage tissue: hyaline, fibrocartilage, and elastic.**
**Hyaline cartilage has a moderate amount of collagen in matrix; it forms a flexible gel.**
**Fibrocartilage has a matrix that is very dense with collagen; it forms a very tough, hard gel.**
**The matrix of elastic cartilage has some collagen with elastin; it forms a soft, elastic gel.**
**Blood tissue’s matrix is fluid; its functions are transportation and protection.**
**Hematopoietic tissue is blood-forming tissue with a liquid matrix. Now you have reviewed all the types of epithelial and connective tissue.**
**Next, we’ll review muscle tissue.**
**Muscle tissue contracts to provide movement or stability. There are three types of muscle tissue: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth.**
**Skeletal muscle tissue attaches to bones; it is also called**
**_striated_ or**
**_voluntary, because_ control is voluntary. Striations are apparent when skeletal muscle tissue is viewed under a microscope.**
**Cardiac muscle tissue, also called**
**_striated involuntary,_ composes the heart wall; ordinarily we cannot control cardiac contractions.**
**Smooth muscle tissue is also called**
**_nonstriated (visceral)_ or**
**_involuntary_. It has no cross striations, and is found in blood vessels and other tube-shaped organs.**
**Nervous tissue is the last type of tissue we’ll review.**
**The function of nervous tissue is control of body functions and rapid communication between body structures.**
**Neurons are the conduction cells.**
**All neurons have a cell body and two types of processes: the axon and dendrites.**
**The axon carries nerve impulses away from the cell body. Think of the alliteration “axon away” to help you remember. All neurons just have one axon.**
**Dendrites carry nerve impulse toward the cell body. Neurons can have one or more dendrites.**
**Glia or neuroglia are another type of cell in nervous tissue. They are the supportive and connecting cells.**
**This concludes the audio review of chapter 4.**
**## Chapter_003.rtf**
3-5
Audio Chapter Summaries
Copyright © 2025 by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
Copyright © 2025 by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
**Patton: Structure & Function of the Body, 17th Edition**
**Chapter 03: Cells**
****Audio Chapter Summaries****
****Welcome to the audio review of Chapter 3: Cells.****
**Human cells vary considerably in size, but all are microscopic. They also differ notably in shape.**
**First, we’ll review the three main parts of a cell: the plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and the nucleus.**
**A cell’s interior is surrounded by a plasma membrane. Thus, the plasma membrane forms the outer boundary of the cell. The plasma membrane is composed of a thin, two-layered membrane of phospholipids that is embedded with proteins. It is also selectively permeable.**
**Cytoplasm is the living substance found only in cells. Numerous small structures called organelles are part of the cytoplasm, along with the fluid that serves as the interior environment of each cell. Cytoplasm fills the space between the cell nucleus and the plasma membrane and includes all cell substances.**
**The cytoskeleton is the internal framework of a cell. It is composed of microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules. The cytoskeleton provides support and movement of the cell and organelles.**
**The small cell parts, called organelles, are specialized structures within the cytoplasm. Now we’ll review some of the organelles of the cell.**
**The endoplasmic reticulum (or ER) is a complex system of membranes forming a network of connecting sacs and canals that carries substances through cytoplasm.**
**Smooth ER synthesizes chemicals that make up cellular membrane material.**
**Rough ER collects, and transports proteins made by ribosomes.**
**Ribosomes are made of two tiny subunits of mostly ribosomal RNA.**
**Ribosomes may attach to rough ER or lie free in cytoplasm.**
**Ribosomes manufacture enzymes and other proteins, so they are often called**
**_protein factories._**
**The Golgi apparatus, another organelle, is a group of flattened sacs near the nucleus. It collects chemicals into vesicles that move from the smooth ER outward to the plasma membrane. The Golgi apparatus is called the**
**_chemical_ _processing_ _and packaging center._**
**_The organelles called mitochondria are often called the_**
**__power plants_ of the cell. They are composed of inner and outer membranous sacs and are involved with energy-releasing chemical reactions (also called cellular respiration)._**
**_Each mitochondrion contains its own DNA molecule, which has the information for building and running the mitochondrion._**
**_Lysosomes are membrane-enclosed vesicles containing digestive enzymes. This organelle has a protective function; they so-to-speak “eat” and digest microbes._**
**_Lysosomes were formerly thought to be responsible for apoptosis (or programmed cell death), but now scientists know that is not true._**
**_Peroxisomes are vesicles that also contain enzymes. This organelle, found in some cells, is important for metabolizing lipids for energy and detoxifying toxins._**
**_Proteasomes are hollow cylinders of protein that break apart irregular proteins into amino acids that are recycled by the cell._**
**_The_**
**_**centrosome** is a microtubule-organizing region of cytoplasm near the nucleus of each cell._**
**_Centrioles are paired organelles that lie at right angles to each other within the centrosome and function in moving chromosomes during cell reproduction._**
**_The three major types of cell extensions are microvilli, cilia, and flagella._**
**_Microvilli are short extensions of the plasma membrane that increase surface area and produce slight movements that enhance absorption by the cell._**
**_Cilia are hairlike extensions with inner microtubules found on free or exposed surfaces of all cells; cilia serve sensory functions, but some are also capable of moving together in a wavelike fashion to propel mucus across a surface._**
**_Flagella are single projections (much longer than cilia) that act as “tails” of sperm cells._**
**_The nucleus controls the cell because it contains most of the genetic code (the genome), instructions for making proteins, which in turn determine cell structure and function._**
**_Component structures of the nucleus include the nuclear envelope, nucleoplasm, nucleolus, and chromatin._**
**_**Chromatin** in the nucleus are made of proteins around which are wound segments of the long, threadlike molecules called deoxyribonucleic acid, abbreviated_**
**__DNA._ DNA molecules become tightly coiled chromosomes during cell division. 46 nuclear chromosomes contain DNA, which contains the genetic code._**
**_Note that there is a relationship between cell structure and function._**
**_Every human cell has a designated function: some help maintain the cell, and others regulate life processes. Specialized functions of a cell differ depending on the number and type of organelles._**
**_It is important that you review the movements of substances through cell membranes. Transport processes move substances into and out of cells._**
**_There are two types of transport: passive transport, which does not require the cell to expend energy; and active transport, which does require the cell to expend energy (from ATP)._**
**_Passive transport processes do not require added energy and result in movement “down a concentration gradient.” In a passive process, it is unnecessary to add energy to the system. The primary passive transport processes that move substances through membranes include diffusion, osmosis, dialysis, and filtration._**
**_Diffusion, a type of passive transport, occurs when substances scatter themselves evenly throughout an available space, the particles moving from high to low concentration. Solute particles may thus move through channels or carriers in a membrane to reach an equilibrium (an equal concentration) of solution on both sides of the membrane._**
**_Osmosis is the passive movement of water molecules when some solutes cannot cross the membrane. Similar to diffusion, in osmosis, water moves in a direction that produces an equilibrium. Because water moves, but not all the solutes, osmotic pressure may change across the membrane._**
**_In dialysis, some solutes move across a selectively permeable membrane by diffusion and other solutes do not, thus resulting in uneven distribution of solute types._**
**_Filtration is the movement of water and solutes caused by hydrostatic pressure on one side of membrane._**
**_Next, we’ll review the active transport processes of ion pumps, phagocytosis, and pinocytosis._**
**_Active transport processes occur only in living cells; movement of substances is “up the concentration gradient”; so it requires energy from ATP._**
**_An ion pump is a protein complex in the cell membrane that uses energy from ATP to move substances across cell membranes against their concentration gradients. Examples of ion pumps include the sodium-potassium pump and the calcium pump. Some ion pumps work with other carriers so that glucose or amino acids are transported along with ions._**
**_In phagocytosis (or “cell eating”), large particles are engulfed in a vesicle as a protective mechanism often used to destroy bacteria or debris from tissue damage._**
**_In pinocytosis (or “cell drinking”), fluids or dissolved substances are engulfed into cells._**
**_Both phagocytosis and pinocytosis are active transport mechanisms because they require cell energy from ATP to move the cytoskeleton in a way that engulfs material and pulls it into the cell._**
**_Now we’ll review cell growth and reproduction._**
**_Cell growth is managed by proteins that determine the structure and function of cells._**
**_Protein synthesis is directed by two nucleic acids: DNA and ribonucleic acid (abbreviated RNA)._**
**_DNA makes up 46 chromosomes contained in the cell nucleus._**
**_DNA is a large molecule shaped like a spiral staircase; sugar (deoxyribose) and phosphate units compose the sides of the molecule; base pairs (adenine-thymine or guanine-cytosine) compose the so-called “steps” of the staircase._**
**_Base pairings are always the same, but the sequence of base pairs differs in different DNA molecules. Base pairings are referred to as complementary base pairing._**
**_A gene is a specific sequence of base pairs within a DNA molecule. Genes dictate formation of enzymes and other proteins by ribosomes, thereby indirectly determining a cell’s structure and functions._**
**_RNA molecules are made from genes that do not code directly for proteins. RNA molecules regulate cell processes, such as protein synthesis. RNA subunits are made up of nucleotides, but have ribose as their sugar and have the base uracil instead of thymine._**
**_Protein synthesis occurs in cytoplasm; thus genetic information must pass from the nucleus to the cytoplasm._**
**_In transcription, double-stranded DNA separates to form messenger RNA._**
**_Each strand of messenger RNA is a copy or transcript of a particular gene base-pair sequence from a segment of DNA._**
**_Messenger RNA molecules pass from the nucleus to the cytoplasm where they direct protein synthesis in ribosomes and endoplasmic reticulum._**
**_Translation is the process of “translating” the genetic code in the messenger RNA transcript to synthesize proteins in cytoplasm in ribosomes._**
**_A codon is a series of three nucleotide bases in messenger RNA that acts as a code for a specific amino acid. Transfer RNA carries a specific amino acid and has an anticodon, which is a 3-base sequence that complements the messenger RNA codon that signifies that amino acid._**
**_Transfer RNA brings amino acids into place along the messenger RNA strand where it is held by a ribosome, thus forming a strand of amino acids._**
**_To review cell reproduction, first recall this information about the cell life cycle._**
**_The life cycle of a cell includes reproduction of the cell involving division of the nucleus (called mitosis) and the cytoplasm._**
**_Two offspring cells result from the division._**
**_Interphase is the period of a cell’s life cycle when the cell is not actively dividing._**
**_DNA replication is the process by which each half of a DNA molecule becomes a whole molecule identical to the original DNA molecule; replication precedes mitosis._**
**_Mitosis is the process in cell division that distributes identical nuclear chromosomes (DNA molecules) to each new cell formed when the original cell divides._**
**_Be sure you understand what happens at each stage of mitosis._**
**_In prophase, the first stage, chromatin become organized, chromosomes (which are pairs of linked chromatids) appear, and centrioles move away from nucleus. The nuclear envelope disappears, freeing genetic material, and spindle fibers appear._**
**_In metaphase, the second stage, chromosomes align across the center of the cell, and spindle fibers attach themselves to each chromatid._**
**_Anaphase is the third stage. In anaphase, centromeres break apart. The separated chromatids are now called_**
**__chromosomes._ Chromosomes are pulled to opposite ends of the cell, and a cleavage furrow develops at the end of anaphase._**
**_In telophase, the fourth stage, cell division is completed, and nuclei appear in offspring cells. The nuclear envelope and nucleoli appear, and the cytoplasm is divided (called cytokinesis)._**
**_Offspring cells then become fully functional, thus ending mitosis and entering interphase._**
**_Two identical cells result from cell division, growing tissues or replacing old or damaged cells._**
**_Differentiation is the process by which offspring cells can specialize and form different kinds of tissues. Abnormalities of mitotic division can produce benign or malignant neoplasms, the medical term for tumors._**
**_This concludes the audio review of Chapter 3._**
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**## Chapter_004.rtf**
4-3
Audio Chapter Summaries
Copyright © 2025 by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
Copyright © 2025 by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
**Patton: Structure & Function of the Body, 17th Edition**
**Chapter 04: Tissues**
****Audio Chapter Summaries****
****Welcome to the audio review of Chapter 4: Tissues.****
**There are four main tissue types:**
**Epithelial tissue forms sheets that cover or line the body;**
**Connective tissue provides structural and functional support;**
**Muscle tissue contracts to produce movement; and**
**Nervous tissue, which senses, conducts, and processes information.**
**The extracellular matrix (or ECM), also called simply “matrix” is the internal fluid environment of the body, surrounding cells of each tissue. The ECM is mostly water, but also often contains fibers and other substances that give it thick, jellylike consistency. Two fibers within the matrix are collagen, the protein that forms twisted ropelike fibers that provide flexible strength to tissue; and elastin, a rubbery protein that provides elastic stretch and rebound in tissues. In addition, matrix includes polysaccharides and proteoglycans that help link cells, absorb shock, regulate function, and provide lubrication.**
**Next, we’ll review each of the four main types of tissue in more detail.**
**Epithelial tissue covers the body and lines body cavities.**
**The cells of epithelial tissue are packed closely together with little matrix.**
**Epithelial tissue is classified by the shape of the cells that form it.**
**Squamous epithelial tissue has flat and scalelike cells.**
**Cuboidal epithelial tissue has cube-shaped cells.**
**Columnar epithelial tissue has cells that are higher than they are wide.**
**Transitional epithelial tissue has cells of varying shapes that can stretch.**
**Epithelial tissue is also classified by the arrangement of cells into one or more layers: simple (one layer) or stratified (more than one layer).**
**Squamous epithelium is either simple or stratified.**
**Simple squamous epithelium has a single layer of scalelike cells adapted for transport (e.g., for absorption).**
**Stratified squamous epithelium has several layers of closely packed cells specializing in protection.**
**Cuboidal epithelium is also either simple or stratified.**
**Simple cuboidal epithelium contains a single layer of cubelike cells often specialized for secretory activity; they may secrete into ducts, directly into blood, and on the body surface.**
**Stratified cuboidal epithelium has two or more layers of cubelike cells, and is sometimes found in sweat glands and other locations.**
**Columnar epithelium is either simple or pseudostratified.**
**Simple columnar epithelium has tall, columnlike cells arranged in a single layer; it contains mucus-producing goblet cells; the regular columnar cells specialize in absorption.**
**Pseudostratified epithelium has a single layer of distorted columnar cells; note that each cell touches the basement membrane.**
**Transitional epithelium is also called stratified transitional epithelium. It contains up to 10 layers of roughly cuboidal cells that distort to squamous shape when stretched. Transitional epithelium is found in body areas that stretch, such as the urinary bladder.**
**Connective tissue is the most abundant and widely distributed tissue in the body, with many different types, appearances, and functions. It has relatively few cells in extracellular matrix between tissue cells. The five types of connective tissue are fibrous, bone, cartilage, blood, and hematopoietic tissue, and we’ll review each type next.**
**Fibrous connective tissue has four subtypes: loose fibrous (or areolar), adipose (or fat), reticular, and dense fibrous.**
**Loose fibrous or areolar connective tissue has fibrous glue (fascia) that holds organs together; collagenous and elastic fibers, plus a variety of cell types.**
**Adipose (or fat) tissue can be white fat, which stores lipids (such as triglycerides); or brown fat that produces heat; both types regulate metabolism.**
**Reticular tissue has a delicate net of collagen fibers, as in bone marrow.**
**Dense fibrous tissue has bundles of strong collagen fibers that are densely packed.**
**Regular dense fibrous tissue has parallel collagen bundles; an example is a tendon.**
**Irregular dense fibrous tissue has chaotic, swirling collagen bundles; an example of it is the deep layer of skin.**
**The next type of tissue we’ll review is bone tissue, which can be compact or cancellous.**
**The bone matrix is collagen bundles encrusted with calcium mineral crystals.**
**Compact bone is made of cylindrical osteons (haversian systems); it forms the outer walls of bones.**
**Cancellous bone (also called spongy bone) is made of thin, crisscrossing beams of bone; it is found inside bones.**
**Bone functions in support and protection.**
**Cartilage tissue is different than bone tissue. Cartilage tissue’s matrix is the consistency of gristlelike gel. Cartilage tissue cells are called chondrocytes.**
**There are three types of cartilage tissue: hyaline, fibrocartilage, and elastic.**
**Hyaline cartilage has a moderate amount of collagen in matrix; it forms a flexible gel.**
**Fibrocartilage has a matrix that is very dense with collagen; it forms a very tough, hard gel.**
**The matrix of elastic cartilage has some collagen with elastin; it forms a soft, elastic gel.**
**Blood tissue’s matrix is fluid; its functions are transportation and protection.**
**Hematopoietic tissue is blood-forming tissue with a liquid matrix. Now you have reviewed all the types of epithelial and connective tissue.**
**Next, we’ll review muscle tissue.**
**Muscle tissue contracts to provide movement or stability. There are three types of muscle tissue: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth.**
**Skeletal muscle tissue attaches to bones; it is also called**
**_striated_ or**
**_voluntary, because_ control is voluntary. Striations are apparent when skeletal muscle tissue is viewed under a microscope.**
**Cardiac muscle tissue, also called**
**_striated involuntary,_ composes the heart wall; ordinarily we cannot control cardiac contractions.**
**Smooth muscle tissue is also called**
**_nonstriated (visceral)_ or**
**_involuntary_. It has no cross striations, and is found in blood vessels and other tube-shaped organs.**
**Nervous tissue is the last type of tissue we’ll review.**
**The function of nervous tissue is control of body functions and rapid communication between body structures.**
**Neurons are the conduction cells.**
**All neurons have a cell body and two types of processes: the axon and dendrites.**
**The axon carries nerve impulses away from the cell body. Think of the alliteration “axon away” to help you remember. All neurons just have one axon.**
**Dendrites carry nerve impulse toward the cell body. Neurons can have one or more dendrites.**
**Glia or neuroglia are another type of cell in nervous tissue. They are the supportive and connecting cells.**
**This concludes the audio review of chapter 4.**
**## Chapter_003.rtf**
3-5
Audio Chapter Summaries
Copyright © 2025 by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
Copyright © 2025 by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
**Patton: Structure & Function of the Body, 17th Edition**
**Chapter 03: Cells**
****Audio Chapter Summaries****
****Welcome to the audio review of Chapter 3: Cells.****
**Human cells vary considerably in size, but all are microscopic. They also differ notably in shape.**
**First, we’ll review the three main parts of a cell: the plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and the nucleus.**
**A cell’s interior is surrounded by a plasma membrane. Thus, the plasma membrane forms the outer boundary of the cell. The plasma membrane is composed of a thin, two-layered membrane of phospholipids that is embedded with proteins. It is also selectively permeable.**
**Cytoplasm is the living substance found only in cells. Numerous small structures called organelles are part of the cytoplasm, along with the fluid that serves as the interior environment of each cell. Cytoplasm fills the space between the cell nucleus and the plasma membrane and includes all cell substances.**
**The cytoskeleton is the internal framework of a cell. It is composed of microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules. The cytoskeleton provides support and movement of the cell and organelles.**
**The small cell parts, called organelles, are specialized structures within the cytoplasm. Now we’ll review some of the organelles of the cell.**
**The endoplasmic reticulum (or ER) is a complex system of membranes forming a network of connecting sacs and canals that carries substances through cytoplasm.**
**Smooth ER synthesizes chemicals that make up cellular membrane material.**
**Rough ER collects, and transports proteins made by ribosomes.**
**Ribosomes are made of two tiny subunits of mostly ribosomal RNA.**
**Ribosomes may attach to rough ER or lie free in cytoplasm.**
**Ribosomes manufacture enzymes and other proteins, so they are often called**
**_protein factories._**
**The Golgi apparatus, another organelle, is a group of flattened sacs near the nucleus. It collects chemicals into vesicles that move from the smooth ER outward to the plasma membrane. The Golgi apparatus is called the**
**_chemical_ _processing_ _and packaging center._**
**_The organelles called mitochondria are often called the_**
**__power plants_ of the cell. They are composed of inner and outer membranous sacs and are involved with energy-releasing chemical reactions (also called cellular respiration)._**
**_Each mitochondrion contains its own DNA molecule, which has the information for building and running the mitochondrion._**
**_Lysosomes are membrane-enclosed vesicles containing digestive enzymes. This organelle has a protective function; they so-to-speak “eat” and digest microbes._**
**_Lysosomes were formerly thought to be responsible for apoptosis (or programmed cell death), but now scientists know that is not true._**
**_Peroxisomes are vesicles that also contain enzymes. This organelle, found in some cells, is important for metabolizing lipids for energy and detoxifying toxins._**
**_Proteasomes are hollow cylinders of protein that break apart irregular proteins into amino acids that are recycled by the cell._**
**_The_**
**_**centrosome** is a microtubule-organizing region of cytoplasm near the nucleus of each cell._**
**_Centrioles are paired organelles that lie at right angles to each other within the centrosome and function in moving chromosomes during cell reproduction._**
**_The three major types of cell extensions are microvilli, cilia, and flagella._**
**_Microvilli are short extensions of the plasma membrane that increase surface area and produce slight movements that enhance absorption by the cell._**
**_Cilia are hairlike extensions with inner microtubules found on free or exposed surfaces of all cells; cilia serve sensory functions, but some are also capable of moving together in a wavelike fashion to propel mucus across a surface._**
**_Flagella are single projections (much longer than cilia) that act as “tails” of sperm cells._**
**_The nucleus controls the cell because it contains most of the genetic code (the genome), instructions for making proteins, which in turn determine cell structure and function._**
**_Component structures of the nucleus include the nuclear envelope, nucleoplasm, nucleolus, and chromatin._**
**_**Chromatin** in the nucleus are made of proteins around which are wound segments of the long, threadlike molecules called deoxyribonucleic acid, abbreviated_**
**__DNA._ DNA molecules become tightly coiled chromosomes during cell division. 46 nuclear chromosomes contain DNA, which contains the genetic code._**
**_Note that there is a relationship between cell structure and function._**
**_Every human cell has a designated function: some help maintain the cell, and others regulate life processes. Specialized functions of a cell differ depending on the number and type of organelles._**
**_It is important that you review the movements of substances through cell membranes. Transport processes move substances into and out of cells._**
**_There are two types of transport: passive transport, which does not require the cell to expend energy; and active transport, which does require the cell to expend energy (from ATP)._**
**_Passive transport processes do not require added energy and result in movement “down a concentration gradient.” In a passive process, it is unnecessary to add energy to the system. The primary passive transport processes that move substances through membranes include diffusion, osmosis, dialysis, and filtration._**
**_Diffusion, a type of passive transport, occurs when substances scatter themselves evenly throughout an available space, the particles moving from high to low concentration. Solute particles may thus move through channels or carriers in a membrane to reach an equilibrium (an equal concentration) of solution on both sides of the membrane._**
**_Osmosis is the passive movement of water molecules when some solutes cannot cross the membrane. Similar to diffusion, in osmosis, water moves in a direction that produces an equilibrium. Because water moves, but not all the solutes, osmotic pressure may change across the membrane._**
**_In dialysis, some solutes move across a selectively permeable membrane by diffusion and other solutes do not, thus resulting in uneven distribution of solute types._**
**_Filtration is the movement of water and solutes caused by hydrostatic pressure on one side of membrane._**
**_Next, we’ll review the active transport processes of ion pumps, phagocytosis, and pinocytosis._**
**_Active transport processes occur only in living cells; movement of substances is “up the concentration gradient”; so it requires energy from ATP._**
**_An ion pump is a protein complex in the cell membrane that uses energy from ATP to move substances across cell membranes against their concentration gradients. Examples of ion pumps include the sodium-potassium pump and the calcium pump. Some ion pumps work with other carriers so that glucose or amino acids are transported along with ions._**
**_In phagocytosis (or “cell eating”), large particles are engulfed in a vesicle as a protective mechanism often used to destroy bacteria or debris from tissue damage._**
**_In pinocytosis (or “cell drinking”), fluids or dissolved substances are engulfed into cells._**
**_Both phagocytosis and pinocytosis are active transport mechanisms because they require cell energy from ATP to move the cytoskeleton in a way that engulfs material and pulls it into the cell._**
**_Now we’ll review cell growth and reproduction._**
**_Cell growth is managed by proteins that determine the structure and function of cells._**
**_Protein synthesis is directed by two nucleic acids: DNA and ribonucleic acid (abbreviated RNA)._**
**_DNA makes up 46 chromosomes contained in the cell nucleus._**
**_DNA is a large molecule shaped like a spiral staircase; sugar (deoxyribose) and phosphate units compose the sides of the molecule; base pairs (adenine-thymine or guanine-cytosine) compose the so-called “steps” of the staircase._**
**_Base pairings are always the same, but the sequence of base pairs differs in different DNA molecules. Base pairings are referred to as complementary base pairing._**
**_A gene is a specific sequence of base pairs within a DNA molecule. Genes dictate formation of enzymes and other proteins by ribosomes, thereby indirectly determining a cell’s structure and functions._**
**_RNA molecules are made from genes that do not code directly for proteins. RNA molecules regulate cell processes, such as protein synthesis. RNA subunits are made up of nucleotides, but have ribose as their sugar and have the base uracil instead of thymine._**
**_Protein synthesis occurs in cytoplasm; thus genetic information must pass from the nucleus to the cytoplasm._**
**_In transcription, double-stranded DNA separates to form messenger RNA._**
**_Each strand of messenger RNA is a copy or transcript of a particular gene base-pair sequence from a segment of DNA._**
**_Messenger RNA molecules pass from the nucleus to the cytoplasm where they direct protein synthesis in ribosomes and endoplasmic reticulum._**
**_Translation is the process of “translating” the genetic code in the messenger RNA transcript to synthesize proteins in cytoplasm in ribosomes._**
**_A codon is a series of three nucleotide bases in messenger RNA that acts as a code for a specific amino acid. Transfer RNA carries a specific amino acid and has an anticodon, which is a 3-base sequence that complements the messenger RNA codon that signifies that amino acid._**
**_Transfer RNA brings amino acids into place along the messenger RNA strand where it is held by a ribosome, thus forming a strand of amino acids._**
**_To review cell reproduction, first recall this information about the cell life cycle._**
**_The life cycle of a cell includes reproduction of the cell involving division of the nucleus (called mitosis) and the cytoplasm._**
**_Two offspring cells result from the division._**
**_Interphase is the period of a cell’s life cycle when the cell is not actively dividing._**
**_DNA replication is the process by which each half of a DNA molecule becomes a whole molecule identical to the original DNA molecule; replication precedes mitosis._**
**_Mitosis is the process in cell division that distributes identical nuclear chromosomes (DNA molecules) to each new cell formed when the original cell divides._**
**_Be sure you understand what happens at each stage of mitosis._**
**_In prophase, the first stage, chromatin become organized, chromosomes (which are pairs of linked chromatids) appear, and centrioles move away from nucleus. The nuclear envelope disappears, freeing genetic material, and spindle fibers appear._**
**_In metaphase, the second stage, chromosomes align across the center of the cell, and spindle fibers attach themselves to each chromatid._**
**_Anaphase is the third stage. In anaphase, centromeres break apart. The separated chromatids are now called_**
**__chromosomes._ Chromosomes are pulled to opposite ends of the cell, and a cleavage furrow develops at the end of anaphase._**
**_In telophase, the fourth stage, cell division is completed, and nuclei appear in offspring cells. The nuclear envelope and nucleoli appear, and the cytoplasm is divided (called cytokinesis)._**
**_Offspring cells then become fully functional, thus ending mitosis and entering interphase._**
**_Two identical cells result from cell division, growing tissues or replacing old or damaged cells._**
**_Differentiation is the process by which offspring cells can specialize and form different kinds of tissues. Abnormalities of mitotic division can produce benign or malignant neoplasms, the medical term for tumors._**
**_This concludes the audio review of Chapter 3._**
**20250907_000435.jpg**
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**20250907_000325.jpg**
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**## Chapter_004.rtf**
4-3
Audio Chapter Summaries
Copyright © 2025 by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
Copyright © 2025 by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
**Patton: Structure & Function of the Body, 17th Edition**
**Chapter 04: Tissues**
****Audio Chapter Summaries****
****Welcome to the audio review of Chapter 4: Tissues.****
**There are four main tissue types:**
**Epithelial tissue forms sheets that cover or line the body;**
**Connective tissue provides structural and functional support;**
**Muscle tissue contracts to produce movement; and**
**Nervous tissue, which senses, conducts, and processes information.**
**The extracellular matrix (or ECM), also called simply “matrix” is the internal fluid environment of the body, surrounding cells of each tissue. The ECM is mostly water, but also often contains fibers and other substances that give it thick, jellylike consistency. Two fibers within the matrix are collagen, the protein that forms twisted ropelike fibers that provide flexible strength to tissue; and elastin, a rubbery protein that provides elastic stretch and rebound in tissues. In addition, matrix includes polysaccharides and proteoglycans that help link cells, absorb shock, regulate function, and provide lubrication.**
**Next, we’ll review each of the four main types of tissue in more detail.**
**Epithelial tissue covers the body and lines body cavities.**
**The cells of epithelial tissue are packed closely together with little matrix.**
**Epithelial tissue is classified by the shape of the cells that form it.**
**Squamous epithelial tissue has flat and scalelike cells.**
**Cuboidal epithelial tissue has cube-shaped cells.**
**Columnar epithelial tissue has cells that are higher than they are wide.**
**Transitional epithelial tissue has cells of varying shapes that can stretch.**
**Epithelial tissue is also classified by the arrangement of cells into one or more layers: simple (one layer) or stratified (more than one layer).**
**Squamous epithelium is either simple or stratified.**
**Simple squamous epithelium has a single layer of scalelike cells adapted for transport (e.g., for absorption).**
**Stratified squamous epithelium has several layers of closely packed cells specializing in protection.**
**Cuboidal epithelium is also either simple or stratified.**
**Simple cuboidal epithelium contains a single layer of cubelike cells often specialized for secretory activity; they may secrete into ducts, directly into blood, and on the body surface.**
**Stratified cuboidal epithelium has two or more layers of cubelike cells, and is sometimes found in sweat glands and other locations.**
**Columnar epithelium is either simple or pseudostratified.**
**Simple columnar epithelium has tall, columnlike cells arranged in a single layer; it contains mucus-producing goblet cells; the regular columnar cells specialize in absorption.**
**Pseudostratified epithelium has a single layer of distorted columnar cells; note that each cell touches the basement membrane.**
**Transitional epithelium is also called stratified transitional epithelium. It contains up to 10 layers of roughly cuboidal cells that distort to squamous shape when stretched. Transitional epithelium is found in body areas that stretch, such as the urinary bladder.**
**Connective tissue is the most abundant and widely distributed tissue in the body, with many different types, appearances, and functions. It has relatively few cells in extracellular matrix between tissue cells. The five types of connective tissue are fibrous, bone, cartilage, blood, and hematopoietic tissue, and we’ll review each type next.**
**Fibrous connective tissue has four subtypes: loose fibrous (or areolar), adipose (or fat), reticular, and dense fibrous.**
**Loose fibrous or areolar connective tissue has fibrous glue (fascia) that holds organs together; collagenous and elastic fibers, plus a variety of cell types.**
**Adipose (or fat) tissue can be white fat, which stores lipids (such as triglycerides); or brown fat that produces heat; both types regulate metabolism.**
**Reticular tissue has a delicate net of collagen fibers, as in bone marrow.**
**Dense fibrous tissue has bundles of strong collagen fibers that are densely packed.**
**Regular dense fibrous tissue has parallel collagen bundles; an example is a tendon.**
**Irregular dense fibrous tissue has chaotic, swirling collagen bundles; an example of it is the deep layer of skin.**
**The next type of tissue we’ll review is bone tissue, which can be compact or cancellous.**
**The bone matrix is collagen bundles encrusted with calcium mineral crystals.**
**Compact bone is made of cylindrical osteons (haversian systems); it forms the outer walls of bones.**
**Cancellous bone (also called spongy bone) is made of thin, crisscrossing beams of bone; it is found inside bones.**
**Bone functions in support and protection.**
**Cartilage tissue is different than bone tissue. Cartilage tissue’s matrix is the consistency of gristlelike gel. Cartilage tissue cells are called chondrocytes.**
**There are three types of cartilage tissue: hyaline, fibrocartilage, and elastic.**
**Hyaline cartilage has a moderate amount of collagen in matrix; it forms a flexible gel.**
**Fibrocartilage has a matrix that is very dense with collagen; it forms a very tough, hard gel.**
**The matrix of elastic cartilage has some collagen with elastin; it forms a soft, elastic gel.**
**Blood tissue’s matrix is fluid; its functions are transportation and protection.**
**Hematopoietic tissue is blood-forming tissue with a liquid matrix. Now you have reviewed all the types of epithelial and connective tissue.**
**Next, we’ll review muscle tissue.**
**Muscle tissue contracts to provide movement or stability. There are three types of muscle tissue: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth.**
**Skeletal muscle tissue attaches to bones; it is also called**
**_striated_ or**
**_voluntary, because_ control is voluntary. Striations are apparent when skeletal muscle tissue is viewed under a microscope.**
**Cardiac muscle tissue, also called**
**_striated involuntary,_ composes the heart wall; ordinarily we cannot control cardiac contractions.**
**Smooth muscle tissue is also called**
**_nonstriated (visceral)_ or**
**_involuntary_. It has no cross striations, and is found in blood vessels and other tube-shaped organs.**
**Nervous tissue is the last type of tissue we’ll review.**
**The function of nervous tissue is control of body functions and rapid communication between body structures.**
**Neurons are the conduction cells.**
**All neurons have a cell body and two types of processes: the axon and dendrites.**
**The axon carries nerve impulses away from the cell body. Think of the alliteration “axon away” to help you remember. All neurons just have one axon.**
**Dendrites carry nerve impulse toward the cell body. Neurons can have one or more dendrites.**
**Glia or neuroglia are another type of cell in nervous tissue. They are the supportive and connecting cells.**
**This concludes the audio review of chapter 4.**
**## Chapter_003.rtf**
3-5
Audio Chapter Summaries
Copyright © 2025 by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
Copyright © 2025 by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
**Patton: Structure & Function of the Body, 17th Edition**
**Chapter 03: Cells**
****Audio Chapter Summaries****
****Welcome to the audio review of Chapter 3: Cells.****
**Human cells vary considerably in size, but all are microscopic. They also differ notably in shape.**
**First, we’ll review the three main parts of a cell: the plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and the nucleus.**
**A cell’s interior is surrounded by a plasma membrane. Thus, the plasma membrane forms the outer boundary of the cell. The plasma membrane is composed of a thin, two-layered membrane of phospholipids that is embedded with proteins. It is also selectively permeable.**
**Cytoplasm is the living substance found only in cells. Numerous small structures called organelles are part of the cytoplasm, along with the fluid that serves as the interior environment of each cell. Cytoplasm fills the space between the cell nucleus and the plasma membrane and includes all cell substances.**
**The cytoskeleton is the internal framework of a cell. It is composed of microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules. The cytoskeleton provides support and movement of the cell and organelles.**
**The small cell parts, called organelles, are specialized structures within the cytoplasm. Now we’ll review some of the organelles of the cell.**
**The endoplasmic reticulum (or ER) is a complex system of membranes forming a network of connecting sacs and canals that carries substances through cytoplasm.**
**Smooth ER synthesizes chemicals that make up cellular membrane material.**
**Rough ER collects, and transports proteins made by ribosomes.**
**Ribosomes are made of two tiny subunits of mostly ribosomal RNA.**
**Ribosomes may attach to rough ER or lie free in cytoplasm.**
**Ribosomes manufacture enzymes and other proteins, so they are often called**
**_protein factories._**
**The Golgi apparatus, another organelle, is a group of flattened sacs near the nucleus. It collects chemicals into vesicles that move from the smooth ER outward to the plasma membrane. The Golgi apparatus is called the**
**_chemical_ _processing_ _and packaging center._**
**_The organelles called mitochondria are often called the_**
**__power plants_ of the cell. They are composed of inner and outer membranous sacs and are involved with energy-releasing chemical reactions (also called cellular respiration)._**
**_Each mitochondrion contains its own DNA molecule, which has the information for building and running the mitochondrion._**
**_Lysosomes are membrane-enclosed vesicles containing digestive enzymes. This organelle has a protective function; they so-to-speak “eat” and digest microbes._**
**_Lysosomes were formerly thought to be responsible for apoptosis (or programmed cell death), but now scientists know that is not true._**
**_Peroxisomes are vesicles that also contain enzymes. This organelle, found in some cells, is important for metabolizing lipids for energy and detoxifying toxins._**
**_Proteasomes are hollow cylinders of protein that break apart irregular proteins into amino acids that are recycled by the cell._**
**_The_**
**_**centrosome** is a microtubule-organizing region of cytoplasm near the nucleus of each cell._**
**_Centrioles are paired organelles that lie at right angles to each other within the centrosome and function in moving chromosomes during cell reproduction._**
**_The three major types of cell extensions are microvilli, cilia, and flagella._**
**_Microvilli are short extensions of the plasma membrane that increase surface area and produce slight movements that enhance absorption by the cell._**
**_Cilia are hairlike extensions with inner microtubules found on free or exposed surfaces of all cells; cilia serve sensory functions, but some are also capable of moving together in a wavelike fashion to propel mucus across a surface._**
**_Flagella are single projections (much longer than cilia) that act as “tails” of sperm cells._**
**_The nucleus controls the cell because it contains most of the genetic code (the genome), instructions for making proteins, which in turn determine cell structure and function._**
**_Component structures of the nucleus include the nuclear envelope, nucleoplasm, nucleolus, and chromatin._**
**_**Chromatin** in the nucleus are made of proteins around which are wound segments of the long, threadlike molecules called deoxyribonucleic acid, abbreviated_**
**__DNA._ DNA molecules become tightly coiled chromosomes during cell division. 46 nuclear chromosomes contain DNA, which contains the genetic code._**
**_Note that there is a relationship between cell structure and function._**
**_Every human cell has a designated function: some help maintain the cell, and others regulate life processes. Specialized functions of a cell differ depending on the number and type of organelles._**
**_It is important that you review the movements of substances through cell membranes. Transport processes move substances into and out of cells._**
**_There are two types of transport: passive transport, which does not require the cell to expend energy; and active transport, which does require the cell to expend energy (from ATP)._**
**_Passive transport processes do not require added energy and result in movement “down a concentration gradient.” In a passive process, it is unnecessary to add energy to the system. The primary passive transport processes that move substances through membranes include diffusion, osmosis, dialysis, and filtration._**
**_Diffusion, a type of passive transport, occurs when substances scatter themselves evenly throughout an available space, the particles moving from high to low concentration. Solute particles may thus move through channels or carriers in a membrane to reach an equilibrium (an equal concentration) of solution on both sides of the membrane._**
**_Osmosis is the passive movement of water molecules when some solutes cannot cross the membrane. Similar to diffusion, in osmosis, water moves in a direction that produces an equilibrium. Because water moves, but not all the solutes, osmotic pressure may change across the membrane._**
**_In dialysis, some solutes move across a selectively permeable membrane by diffusion and other solutes do not, thus resulting in uneven distribution of solute types._**
**_Filtration is the movement of water and solutes caused by hydrostatic pressure on one side of membrane._**
**_Next, we’ll review the active transport processes of ion pumps, phagocytosis, and pinocytosis._**
**_Active transport processes occur only in living cells; movement of substances is “up the concentration gradient”; so it requires energy from ATP._**
**_An ion pump is a protein complex in the cell membrane that uses energy from ATP to move substances across cell membranes against their concentration gradients. Examples of ion pumps include the sodium-potassium pump and the calcium pump. Some ion pumps work with other carriers so that glucose or amino acids are transported along with ions._**
**_In phagocytosis (or “cell eating”), large particles are engulfed in a vesicle as a protective mechanism often used to destroy bacteria or debris from tissue damage._**
**_In pinocytosis (or “cell drinking”), fluids or dissolved substances are engulfed into cells._**
**_Both phagocytosis and pinocytosis are active transport mechanisms because they require cell energy from ATP to move the cytoskeleton in a way that engulfs material and pulls it into the cell._**
**_Now we’ll review cell growth and reproduction._**
**_Cell growth is managed by proteins that determine the structure and function of cells._**
**_Protein synthesis is directed by two nucleic acids: DNA and ribonucleic acid (abbreviated RNA)._**
**_DNA makes up 46 chromosomes contained in the cell nucleus._**
**_DNA is a large molecule shaped like a spiral staircase; sugar (deoxyribose) and phosphate units compose the sides of the molecule; base pairs (adenine-thymine or guanine-cytosine) compose the so-called “steps” of the staircase._**
**_Base pairings are always the same, but the sequence of base pairs differs in different DNA molecules. Base pairings are referred to as complementary base pairing._**
**_A gene is a specific sequence of base pairs within a DNA molecule. Genes dictate formation of enzymes and other proteins by ribosomes, thereby indirectly determining a cell’s structure and functions._**
**_RNA molecules are made from genes that do not code directly for proteins. RNA molecules regulate cell processes, such as protein synthesis. RNA subunits are made up of nucleotides, but have ribose as their sugar and have the base uracil instead of thymine._**
**_Protein synthesis occurs in cytoplasm; thus genetic information must pass from the nucleus to the cytoplasm._**
**_In transcription, double-stranded DNA separates to form messenger RNA._**
**_Each strand of messenger RNA is a copy or transcript of a particular gene base-pair sequence from a segment of DNA._**
**_Messenger RNA molecules pass from the nucleus to the cytoplasm where they direct protein synthesis in ribosomes and endoplasmic reticulum._**
**_Translation is the process of “translating” the genetic code in the messenger RNA transcript to synthesize proteins in cytoplasm in ribosomes._**
**_A codon is a series of three nucleotide bases in messenger RNA that acts as a code for a specific amino acid. Transfer RNA carries a specific amino acid and has an anticodon, which is a 3-base sequence that complements the messenger RNA codon that signifies that amino acid._**
**_Transfer RNA brings amino acids into place along the messenger RNA strand where it is held by a ribosome, thus forming a strand of amino acids._**
**_To review cell reproduction, first recall this information about the cell life cycle._**
**_The life cycle of a cell includes reproduction of the cell involving division of the nucleus (called mitosis) and the cytoplasm._**
**_Two offspring cells result from the division._**
**_Interphase is the period of a cell’s life cycle when the cell is not actively dividing._**
**_DNA replication is the process by which each half of a DNA molecule becomes a whole molecule identical to the original DNA molecule; replication precedes mitosis._**
**_Mitosis is the process in cell division that distributes identical nuclear chromosomes (DNA molecules) to each new cell formed when the original cell divides._**
**_Be sure you understand what happens at each stage of mitosis._**
**_In prophase, the first stage, chromatin become organized, chromosomes (which are pairs of linked chromatids) appear, and centrioles move away from nucleus. The nuclear envelope disappears, freeing genetic material, and spindle fibers appear._**
**_In metaphase, the second stage, chromosomes align across the center of the cell, and spindle fibers attach themselves to each chromatid._**
**_Anaphase is the third stage. In anaphase, centromeres break apart. The separated chromatids are now called_**
**__chromosomes._ Chromosomes are pulled to opposite ends of the cell, and a cleavage furrow develops at the end of anaphase._**
**_In telophase, the fourth stage, cell division is completed, and nuclei appear in offspring cells. The nuclear envelope and nucleoli appear, and the cytoplasm is divided (called cytokinesis)._**
**_Offspring cells then become fully functional, thus ending mitosis and entering interphase._**
**_Two identical cells result from cell division, growing tissues or replacing old or damaged cells._**
**_Differentiation is the process by which offspring cells can specialize and form different kinds of tissues. Abnormalities of mitotic division can produce benign or malignant neoplasms, the medical term for tumors._**
**_This concludes the audio review of Chapter 3._**
**20250907_000435.jpg**
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**20250907_000325.jpg**
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